Dislocation of human power from villages to cities

The dislocation of manpower from rural to urban areas or from one region to the other region for the purpose of earning money is an age old phenomenon. This dislocation of man power takes place from one country to the other country also. It frequently occurs during international trade, business and academic ventures.

In the age of globalization, countries of the world exchange their labourers in the form of migration. Sometimes skilled people migrate from one country to the other country in search of better opportunities and employment. This type of migration is called as brain drain. The development of better opportunities for skilled people, greater foreign exchange, income and promotion of economic growth can help in checking the skilled manpower against going abroad.

Some developed countries have put a check against the free flow of workers from other countries to their own country in order to get better wages. This flow of migrants to a country creates a burden on job opportunities in that country creating a threat to the employment of its citizens. However, the migration of skilled people and academicians to a country contributes to its strength and income. It increases the income of the developing country as well. Hence developed countries are demanding relaxation in the immigration laws of those countries to permit the movement of their people. The migration of the labour force is often associated with economic, political and environmental insecurity. Its remarkable impact is the growth of urban slums in developing countries.

Urban areas have been expanding as more and more people from rural areas have been migrating towards cities in search of employment, educational opportunities, and better life styles. This migration towards

Urban areas started in sixties and seventies as fashion of adopting urban life styles also. Rural men used to move from villages towards fast industrialising urban areas where they soon got some employment as labourers. There they used to stay for about a year or so and after collecting some money they tend to come back to their homes in villages where they tended to show what they had acquired from cities. Many people who developed their relations in urban areas carried their families there and started schooling of their children and gradually forgot their roots. No one from an urban area ever tried to go to a village, acquire some land and start farming. Thus the migration continued as one way traffic flow. Thus scarcity of human power in rural areas hampered the agricultural economy that could not be compensated by agricultural mechanization.

There have been and even today, there are many other causes of flow of human traffic towards cities. Mega projects of development have been grabbing lands of the rural inhabitants and there are several cases where proper compensation and rehabilitation works don’t have any room on earth. People inhabiting lands near mining areas or industrial areas have to migrate most often due to dangerous pollution and other incidents. Political conflicts too drive away great masses of people across the borders.

Key words : dislocation, migration, urban area, rural area, agriculture, economy, urbanisation, traffic flow, mechanization

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A medicinal creeper of the wild that rejuvenates

Boerhavia diffusa is a delicate but rejuvenating plant that grows creeping attached to the ground. In Sanskrit language it is known as Punarnava meaning – one that renews or one that rejuvenates. Once while walking along the streets of my residential colony I chanced to see Punarnava growing out side the boundary wall of a house and adjacent to the road I was walking along. The plant was well branched and it covered a good area, covering the whole ground not allowing a single grass to grow and peep out of the green and dense leaves of the plant. The next day I was shocked to see that the plant was completely uprooted by labourers employed by the house owner perhaps as a drive to clean the surrounding and the place looked as clean as if no grass could ever grow on that place. I was sad, though I like clean surrounding but I did never like killing of Punarnava. For about a month or so, I did not look towards the place where my dear Punarnava once grew luxuriantly, but one day I became very happy when I sadly glanced at the place. A number of Punarnava shoots had started emerging out of the same area. Now the entire place is again covered by the plant. Thus Punarnava certified its name. 

Image: Boerhavia diffusa, the rejuvenating herb

Boerhavia diffusa is a good looking plant with great medicinal properties. It is known to Ayurveda since centuries. A number of traditional, ethno-herbological, Unani and other healthcare systems know it well for its immense healing and curative properties. Some common names of Boerhavia diffusa are Erva tostão, erva toustao, pega-pinto, hog weed, pig weed, atikamaamidi, biskhapra, djambo, etiponia, fowl’s lice, ganda’dar, ghetuli, katkatud, mahenshi, mamauri, ndandalida, oulouni niabo, paanbalibis, patal-jarh, pitasudu-pala, punar-nava, punerva, punarnava, purnoi, samdelma, san sant, santh, santi, satadi thikedi, satodi, spreading hog weed, tellaaku, thazhuthama, thikri, touri-touri, tshrana.Different synonyms of the plant are Boerhavia adscendens, B. caribaea, B. coccinea, B. erecta, B. paniculata, B. repens, B.viscosa .Boerhavia diffusa is native to India though it is well represented in a number of countries of the world.

However, a list of Indian names of Punarnava or Boerhavia diffusa is given below –

The Indian names of Punarnava
Languages/Regions/Countries	Names
1) Bengal	Punurnava
2) Gujarati	Vakhakhaparo, Dholia-saturdo
3) Marathi	Tambadivasu, Ghetuli
4) Tamil	Mukaratee-Kirei
5) Hindi, Sanskrit & Telugu	Punernava, Raktakunda, Shothaghni, Varshabhu
6) Kanarese	Kommegida
7) English	Hogweed

Boerhavia in Ayurvedic healthcare system

 The Charak Samhita and the Susruta Samhita- two old and most respected books of Ayurveda tell us that various Ayurvedic preparations can be made from Punarnava like – Punarnavastak kwath, Punarnava ksar, and Punarnava tail and these preparations can be and have been used for treating various types of ailments. Ayurvedic energetic reveal that Punarnava has bitter, sweet Rasa or taste; cooling virya or action; pungent vipaka or post digestive effects; and balancing for all doshas especially kaph, may aggravate vata if used in excess – as dosas.

Chopra, 1969 is of the opinion that the whole plant of Boerhavia diffusa as documented in Indian Pharmacopoeia is diuretic when taken internally in any form. Punarnavine is the active principle contained in the plant extract. It is an alkaloid. According to a report of CSIR (19880, roots, leaves and flowers of Boerhavia diffusa are highly potent. In Ayurveda different parts of this plant have been reported to possess different medicinal properties. Anand, 1995 has reported that it has been in use as a medicine to cure renal problems. On the other hand, Gaitonde et al.(1974), have reported that the plant have been in use as a medicine to treat seminal weakness and blood pressure since long. Chopra et al. have reported that the extract of different parts of the plant have been in use for treating cough, stomach ache, anemia and cold since long. It has also been in use diaphoretic, laxative, expectorant and potent antidote for snake bite etc., whereas Singh and Udupa (1972) have reported about its applications in the treatment of nephritic syndrome. Mudgal(1975), and Cruz(19950 have reported about its use as a medicine in the treatment of hepatitis, gall bladder abnormalities and urinary diseases.Chopra et al. have studied about the roles of its flowers and seeds as contraceptive.

Various Ayurvedic texts reveal that the extract of this plant is very useful in the treatment of skin diseases for example scabies. It is also considered as an excellent remedy for guinea worms. When combined with certain other ingredients in the treatment of anaemia and renal diseases like kidney stone, and nephritis. The extract of the root of Boerhavia is widely used in the treatment of liver disorders like jaundice and hepatitis. In Brazilian herbal health care system, it is used as an stimulant for emptying gall bladder and for most of the liver disorders. It is also used as an active agent for menorrhagia.It has been reported to rejuvenate the whole body. Besides normalizing dosas it is reported to boost up the immune system of the human body.

Clinical and Pharmacological properties of Boerhavia diffusa

It is reported that Boerhavia diffusa contains an alkaloid known as Punarnavine which shows a wide range of clinical properties. It is reported to be diuretic, anti-inflammatory, antifibrinolytic, anticonvulsant, and anti bacterial. Mishra (1980), and Chandan et al.(1991) have reported that the extract of Boerhavia is anti-stress and anti-hepatotoxic.It is also reported to be anthelmintic febrifuge, anti-leprosy, anti-asthmatic, anti-scabies, and anti-arthritis.

The extract of Boerhavia diffusa when mixed with water exhibits marked protection against different enzymes like serum glutanicoxalo acetic transminase, serum glutanic—pyruvic transminase, and bilirubin in serum against hepatic injury.It contains diuretic and anti-inflammatory properties. Awasthi (2003) have studied Punarnava and found that these activities are exhibited up to maximum levels when samples were collected during rainy season. It is due to combination of these two activities that it is highly efficacious for treating inflammatory renal diseases and common clinical problems like nephritic syndrome, edema and ascites that are caused due to early cirrhosis of liver etc. Important studies on Boerhavia diffusa report that it is efficacious in the tumors of abdomen, and abdominal cancers. Its extract is found to be haematinic and growth promoter in children. The powder of the plant is found to be useful in the treatment of nephrotic syndrome. The intake of powdered leaves and stems of the plant is reported to decrease the albumin urea resulting to the lowering of the blood cholesterol level. Drugs made out of Boerhavia diffusa is reported to be helpful in treating hypertension, angina, cardiac failure, respiratory tract infections, leucorrhea, spermatorrhea etc.Awasthi and Menzel (1986) through an important study proved that purified glycoprotein from Boerhavia diffusa exhibited strong anti-microbial activity against RNA bacteriophases.Verma and Awasthi (1979), have reported that Boerhavia has important anti-viral properties and maximum anti-viral activities are shown by dried root powder when applied before virus inoculation.

References

Anand, R.K. 1995. Biodiversity and tribal association of Boerhaavia diffusa in India-Nepal Himalayan Terai Region. Flora & Fauna VI(2):167–170.

Awasthi, L.P. and Menzel, G. 1986. Effect of root extract from Boerhaavia  diffusa containing an antiviral principle upon plaque formation of RNA bacteriophages. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie 141:415–419.

Awasthi, L.P. and Kumar, P. 2003. Protection of some cucurbitaceous crops against natural infection of viruses through Boerhaavia diffusa plants. Indian Phytopathology 56(3):318.

Chandan, B.K., Sharma, A.K., and Anand, K.K. 1991. Boerhaavia diffusa: A study of its hepatoprotective activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 31(3):299–307.

Chopra, G.L. 1969. Angiosperms. Systematics and Life Cycle. S. Nagin & Co., Jalandhar, Punjab, India. pp. 361–365.

Cruz, G.L. 1995. Dicionario Das Plantas Uteis Do Brasil. 5th Edition. Bertrand, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

CSIR. 1988. The Wealth of India: Raw Materials Vol. VII B. CSIR, New Delhi, India. p. 174.

Chopra, R.N., Ghosh, S., Dey, P., and Ghosh, B.N. 1923. Pharmacology and therapeutics ofBoerhaavia diffusa (punarnava). Indian Medical Gazette 68:203–208.

Gaitonde, B.B., Kulkarni, H.J., and Nabar, S.D. 1974. Diuretic activity of punarnava (Boerhaavia diffusa).Bulletins of the Haffkine Institute (Bombay, India) 2:24.

Mudgal, V. 1975. Studies on medicinal properties of Convolvulus pluricaulis and Boerhaavia diffusa.Planta Medica 28:62–68.

Verma, H.N. and Awasthi, L.P. 1979. Antiviral activity of Boerhaavia diffusa root extract and physical properties of virus inhibitor. Canadian Journal of Botany 57:926–932.

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Datura stramonium, a sacred but poisonous weed

Many of us in India know Datura plant since our childhood. In my school days I used to like this plant especially its trumpet shaped peculiar flowers with a peculiar smell. We used to play with its flowers and fruits though we knew through our elders that its fruits were poisonous and never dared to eat it. On the occasion of Maha Shiv Ratri, our elders used to collect Datura Leaves, flowers and fruits along with Bel Patra, Bhang, Ber fruits and pieces of Desi sugar cane. Ber and sugar cane pieces were (they still are) consumed as Prasad. In the Lingaraj temple of Bhubaneswar, in Orissa state of India, Bel Patra and parts of Datura plant are used as offering to the Lord Shiva.

Nomenclature

Datura is the name of a plant genus derived from DHATURA which is a word known to Hindus through traditions, culture and religion. Datura as known in Hindu traditions, culture and religion is the name of a sacred plant which is beloved to Lord Shiva, the creator of this universe, as per the Hindu mythology. The first word Datura of the botanical name:  Datura stramonium seems as if derived from the same Hindu word. The second word as per the binomial system of botanical nomenclature is originally taken from the Greek “Strychnos” and “Manikos” where Strychnos means night shade and Manikos means mad.The plant was scientifically described and named by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1753, though many herbalists had already described it before him. Nicholas Culpeper and Avicenna, the Persian physician were two such herbalists.

Its common names are Jimson weed, angel’s trumpet, devil’s weed, thorn apple, tolguacha, Jamestown weed, stinkweed, moonflower and malpitte or mad seeds (in South Africa).

Morphological Features

Datura stramonium is an upright or somewhat erect herb which often forms a bush rising up from 1 to 1.5 meter. It belongs to family Solanaceae.

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The plant Datura stramonium has a simple morphology. The glabrous, cylindrical and light green coloured stem of this plant is usually divided into two or three branches that bifurcate and bear leaves that being heavy weighed usually hang down wards, become pale in short time and fall down.

Leaves are inequilaterally- ovate and acuminate with sinuate-dentate margins. These are simple, ex-stipulate, peteolate, cuneate or sometimes rounded, reticulate venation with pubescent surfaces.

 The inflorescence is axillary solitary cyme and sometimes terminal in forked branches. Flowers are usually white- bluish in colour with peculiar trumpet like shape. They appear in the forks of branches and bear short peduncles. These are ebracteates, bracteolate, pedicellate, bisexual, actinomorphic, pentamerous and hypogynous.

Calyx synsepalous, tubular, long, 5-toothed, the lobes ovate-lanceolate, in fruit circumcise above the base, and the upper part is deciduous. Corolla synpetalous, infundibuliform, 5-lobed, the tubes tubular, dilated towards the throat, the mouth wide, the lobes plicate, cuspidate, white.

Androecium polyandrous, stamens 5, epipetalous, near base of corolla tube, the filaments filiform, the anthers dithecous, oblongoid, basified, introrse, dehiscence longitudinal.

Pistil 1, ovary ovoid, longitudinal grooved, covered with emergences, 2-carpelled, syncarpous, 4-loculed by false septation, the placentation axile, the ovules numerous on intruding placentae, the style slender, the stigma 2-lobed. 

The fruits of Datura stramonium when young are green and spiny. They are four valved internally and are termed as capsule by botanists. When fruits are ripe, the capsule opens at the top, throwing back four valve like forms, leaving a long central structure which bears numerous black seeds.

Habit and Habitat of the plant

Datura is found all over the world. It grows in sandy areas, plains and deserts up to 2,500 feet above the sea level and even in disturbed soil. It is native to many countries of the world including United States of America and India. In general it is found in most of the temperate and sub tropical parts of the world. In India it can be seen growing in waste land and along roadsides.

 In Europe Datura plant is found as a weed on wasteland and on garbage dumps. The seeds of this plant have been reported to lie dormant for years and can grow whenever the soil is disturbed.

Key Words

Datura, Dhatur, Lord Shiva, Shivratri, family Solanaceae, Jimson weed, angel’s trumpet, devil’s weed, thorn apple, tolguacha, Jamestown weed, stinkweed, moonflower, malpitte, mad seeds

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Green Hunt

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Bhat- kataiya or the Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. [family SOLANACEAE]

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Governments and sustainable development

Since the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg during August-September 2002, nations of the world have been developing their strategies and implementing a number of projects towards sustainable development, on their own levels. However, during a comprehensive review, different groups of researchers belonging to different countries observe that-1. Many countries lack political and administrative will in implementing programmes pertaining to sustainable development, and most of the national strategies for sustainable development still lack proper budgetary allocations;2. Many sectoral and cross sectoral strategies have been caught in the administrative trap as they have not been coordinated properly;3. National strategies seldom link to local SD strategies and, therefore, often fail to leverage progress and the self organizing capacity at the local levels;4. Approaches towards Public participation have progressed considerably since the 1992 Rio- Earth Summit, but significant challenges still remain in different aspects. These challenges are mentioned below-

(a).There lacks a sense of trust among stakeholders.

(b).Sufficient time is not provided for the participatory processes.

(c).The capacities of civil societies in developing countries have not been strengthened properly.

(d).The implementation of National Sustainable Development -strategies and specific Policy Initiatives often suffer from a lack of central co-ordination in terms of monitoring progress.

(e).The use of economic policy initiatives appears to still be in its infancy in many countries and there is clearly a need for more innovation to complete the Strategic Management Cycle for National Sustainable Development Strategies and specific initiatives.

Sustainable Development in a country can be brought about by incorporating needs of common man and environment in the economic and political agenda of that country. It is the government of a country which remains directly responsible for a number of things like-

-Making policies , plans etc. and conducting various programmes for development;

-Enactment of laws for the welfare of societies, protection of environment and enforcement of these laws;

-Making assessment regarding the status of the health of environment, ascertaining the decline in the natural resources, assessing the levels of pollution in its different segments and setting of standards;

-Evaluating natural resources and their contribution in the development of economy and society;

-Regulating and monitoring activities of industries, companies etc. towards the good of society and environment.

The above mentioned responsibilities of the government demand strong political and administrative will that are essentially the primary means for developing nations to achieve sustainable development. The politics and administration must consider the balance and repair of the environment and share of common man in environmental resources instead of considering only the development of industries and mega projects of modern development.

The sustainable development calls for empowerment, participation, cooperation, equity, security and long term sustainability for all the people in a society. All of these can only be acquired if the constituent components in politics and administration – the mechanisms, institutions and processes, through which citizens articulate their interests and exercise their rights-, are transparent and accountable. In Indian case, the country has the democratic form of government. It holds parliamentary elections. But at local government level and at the political level too, there are no democratic processes or representative systems. For example, the rural poor have no platform within the public sector to exercise their rights, or to raise objections to the detrimental practices of more powerful individuals such as industrialists, landlords, contractors, influential people, mafias etc.

Political and Administrative will have a key role in meeting the aims and objectives of sustainable development in a country. The economic and political agenda must incorporate the needs of the common man and environment. The political and administration must consider the balance and repair of environment and share of the common man in environmental resources instead of caring for the development of industries and mega projects of development. For development to sustain, it is essential that environment is protected, societies are developed, violence and crime are controlled and basic requirements of common people are fulfilled adequately.

According to a report on the Millennium Development Goals-

“As the new millennium opened, 1.1 billion people had no access to safe water, and 2.4 billion lacked access to improved sanitation – making up one sixth and two fifths of the world’s population respectively. The international community has pledged to halve both these proportions by 2015. If these targets are to be met in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean – taking population increase into account – the number of people served by water supply must increase by 1.6 billion (32 per cent) and those served by sanitation by 2.2 billion (59 per cent). The Global Water Partnership estimates that an additional $30 billion needs to be spent each year – $17 billion of it on sanitation. Policy-makers need to overcome a series of hurdles if they are to bridge the resource gap and make sure that the international targets become reality”.

India, in which political system is unstable, any programme of sustainable development cannot be implemented in full spirit. However, in this country, the rest of social development needs to escalate and economic growth needs to be backed by sustainable development. The Government of India has taken a number of steps for the development of rural poor. It has increased allocation for the social sector in the Union Budget 2008. The ambitious Bharat Nirman Programme aims at strong attempt to enhance rural infrastructure by 30 percent. The Government has earmarked US$ 2.68 billion for rural road scheme to link all villages. One-third seats have been reserved in local bodies like gram or village panchayats, municipalities, city cooperatives and district bodies of the 28, 00,000 elected representatives. In India, 970,000 are women. This figure is greater than the sum of elected women representatives across the world.

Human activities have never been favorable to the environment. The Indian constitution lays emphasis on the harmonious development of nature. Several acts and rules have been framed by the government to protect the environment from the pollution of air, water, land and wildlife. Pollution control boards have been set up at the central and state levels to enforce the implementation of these laws with the cooperation of the local administration. But the lack of political and administrative will has been the basic hurdle in the way of implementing laws. However with the intervention of honorable Supreme Court of India and initiatives from the public, environmental laws are being enforced and violators are being punished in the different parts of the country now.

Policies of Governments for sustainable development

Policy making and planning constitute the foundation of any sustainable development programme. May it be forest, land, water, application of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture; construction of Mega River Valley Dams or implementation of Mega Power Projects- policies concerning environment and public are needed to be prepared at the first step.

The maintenance and utilization of resources of environment always requires a policy and today we have many policies like – Environmental Policy, Forest Policy, Energy Policy, Agriculture Policy, Industrial Policy, Rehabilitation Policy, Policy on Use and Distribution of Water, and Policy on Utilization of Land etc.The policies should have space for the needs and aspirations of stakeholders and the good of local environment.

The displacement and rehabilitation of people has been a major problem during the launch of various river valley projects and problems of rehabilitation still persist in many cases. Sometimes these problems emerge out due to elements contained in policies and their execution. These elements often make policies stiff, rude and unfavourable for some people especially the poor, deprived and marginalized. Hence it is suggested by experienced people that policies should be dynamic and flexible. What do we really mean by dynamic and flexible policies? Well, policies those lead a country towards sustainable development, that have adequate provisions for the needs and aspirations of stakeholders and general good of the environment, are called as Dynamic and Flexible Policies.

The government should develop a domestic policy framework that will encourage a shift to more sustainable mode of production required to reinforce both values that encourage the sustainable production and consumption patterns, and policies that encourage the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries. At the same time policies must recognize the importance of diversity and the need of its preservation that are considered to be important pre-conditions for sustainable development.

The largest gathering of world leaders in the history that was held in the year 2000 included 189 Member States in the Millennium Development Summit to adopt the UN Millennium (Development) Declaration. The leaders of the world agreed that poverty and inequality affected more than a billion people including women up to 70 percent, at the turn of the century. These leaders   pledged that their countries would act to reduce extreme poverty up to significant levels and contribute to the creation of a more peaceful, prosperous and just world.

All the 189 countries, including India, adopted 8 Millennium Development Goals that are mentioned below-

(i)                 to Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger,

(ii)               to Achieve universal primary education,

(iii)             to Promote gender equality and empower to women,

(iv)             to Reduce Child Mortality,

      (v)         to Improve Maternal Health,

(v)               to Combat HIV(Human Immune Virus)/AIDS(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), malaria and other diseases,

      (vii)      to Ensure environmental Sustainability, and

(viii)         to Develop a global Partnership for development.

The Environmental Sustainability Scenario in India is mentioned below –

§ Land area covered under different forests is 20.64% as per the 2003 assessment. The National Development Goals (NDGs) aim to increase in forest and tree cover to 25 percent by 2007 and 33 percent by 2012.

§ The NDGs aim that all villages have sustained access to potable drinking Water within the period of the Tenth Five-Year Plan.

§ 86% of the population is reported to have sustainable access to an improved water source in 2004, as against 70% who has access in 1990.

§ Only 33% of the population has the desired access to improved sanitation. This figure was as low as 14% in 1990.

§ 55.5% of the urban population of India lived in slums at the turn of the century

 It is being observed since long that ladies are increasingly involved in earning livelihood. They are the principal bread winners in many poor houses. Hence, at the policy level a major thrust is necessary to ensure quality and justice for them. Policies should be oriented in such ways that literacy and basic education enable the poor to access the benefits of development initiatives and market opportunities.

Key Words :World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) ,Johannesburg,Pollution control boards, cross sectoral strategiesStrategic Management Cycle,political and administrative will,Bharat Nirman Programme ,Millennium Development Summit,Mega Power Projects, displacement and rehabilitation, 

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Importance of Boerhavia diffusa in Traditional and Ethnological Healthcare Systems

Boerhavia diffusa or Punarnava as it is called in Hindi language and the Hog weed in American, is a very important medicinal plant which creeps on waste lands in most part of the world up to an altitude of about 2000m.Belonging to family Nictaginaceae of Angiosperms, Punarnava is also known as spiderling due to its nature of spreading on the ground with profuse branching of its stem like a spider web.

Boerhavia diffusa is an annual or perennial herb which tastes sweet, bitter and astringent. It is due to immense medicinal properties of this plant that it is known to Ayurveda since centuries. A number of clinical researches have validated its great curative and healing properties. 


Besides Ayurveda, Boerhavia diffusa is known to different traditions and cultures and even tribes residing in remote corners of the world know it as a most useful plant. Boerhavia diffusa is found in the tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world. It is distributed in China, India, Australia, Pakistan, Egypt, Sudan, Srilanka, U.S.A. and South Africa. It is also found in a number of countries of the Middle East. This plant is indigenous to India and U.S.A. In India it is found in the warmer parts and up to an altitude of 2000m. It is found growing in waste lands, road sides, road dividers, near railway tracks, on ruins of old buildings, on rubles, and near old earthen ponds.

Boerhavia diffusa

Applications of Boerhavia diffusa in traditional healthcare systems

In traditional system of medicine the indigenous tribes have been reported to make wide use of different parts of Boerhavia diffusa since time immemorial. In an important study by Kirtikar and Basu in 1956, it is reported that the roots of this plant have been in wide use for the treatment of dyspepsia, jaundice, enlargement of spleen, abdominal tumors, abdominal pain and even cancers.

A fine powder of the root of Boerhavia diffusa when mixed thoroughly with mamira or Thalictrum foliolosum forms useful medicines for the red eye.Gupta et al. (1962) have reported that a highly filtered extract of the leaves of this plant can cure corneal ulcers and night blindness. It has been reported to cure or restore virility in men.The extract of leaves of Boerhavia diffusa is used as a lotion in ophthalmic conditions. It is also administered orally to releave muscular pain. Some tribes consider it a great blood purifier. Shah et al. has reported that some tribal communities used this plant as a stimulant for child birth.

Ethnobotanical applications of Boerhavia diffusa
Different ethnic groups across the world have been reported to use this plant in many different ways. Tribals of West Bengal State of India, especially of Purulia district have been reported to eat this plant as vegetable. It can also be seen being sold in the rural and semi urban vegetable markets in many districts of Jharkhand state of the country also. In Assam state of India leaves along with delicate stems of the plant are seen being sold as saag or vegetable. However, farmers do not grow it in fields and the vegetable sellers have to depend on the wild for the collection and sale of this vegetable. 

The inhabitants of Garhwal of Himalayan region in Uttaranchal state of India have been reported to use this herb as a medicine for the treatment of piles. In Madhya Pradesh state of India Bhil tribals have been reported to use this herb as a medicine for the treatment of bloody dysentery. In some regions a decoction of the herb is given to patients for the treatment of nodules. The juice of roots is applied in the treatment of a number of body disorders like asthma, scanty urine or Micturition, and inflammations. It is also used in curing a number of ailments like leucorrhea; rheumatism and stomach ache by Sahariya tribe of Lalitpur district of Uttar Pradesh state of India. Some tribal communities of Ambika Pur district of Madhya Pradesh state of India use this herb for the treatment of elephantiasis.

References

Awasthi, L.P., Chaudhury, B., and Verma, H.N. 1984. Prevention of plant virus diseases by Boerhavia diffusa inhibitor. International Journal of Tropical Plant Diseases 2:41–44.

Awasthi, L.P., Kluge, S., and Verma, H.N. 1987. Possible mode of action of an antiviral principle isolated from Boerhaavia diffusa plants. In: Abstracts, Symposium Analablich Der 100, Widerkehr Der Berufung Von Wilhelm Pfeffer. Das Wriken Von Wilhelm Pfeffer und neue Erkanntnisse und trend in der pflanzenphysiolgie, 10–12 June 1987, Karl Mark University, Leipzig, Germany. Abstract no. 35.

Awasthi, L.P., Kluge, S., and Verma, H.N. 1989. Characteristics of antiviral agents induced by Boerhaavia diffusa glycoprotein in host plants. Indian Journal of Virology 3:156–169.

Gupta, R.B.L., Singh, S., and Dayal, Y. 1962. Effect of punarnava on the visual acuity and refractive errors.Indian Journal of Medical Research 50:428–434.

Kirtikar, K.R. and Basu, B.D. 1956. Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. III. 2nd Edition. Lalit Mohan Basu, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. pp. 2045–2048.

Shah, G.L., Yadav, S.S., and Badinath, V. 1983. Medicinal plants from Dahana Forest. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany 4:141.

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Boerhavia diffusa, an important medicinal herb of the wild

Many years ago when I was in school, I was caught by a strange disease. I did not know about that earlier. The elderly people told me that my eyes were turning yellow. After a day or two, my urine too turned yellow. I was very sad. My body too did not work properly. People told me that I was caught by Pilia or Jaundice, a disease of liver. I had to visit a doctor and he administered me an intravenous injection and advised to take complete rest. The injection was repeated for many times, but I don’t know how many times. A local vaidya suggested my father to make me drink aqueous extract of Punarnava root, Punarnava – a plant that grew in the surrounding in the waste land. I drank the extract for about ten to fifteen days and got well. Since then I am aware of Punarnava. Later, when I was studying taxonomy in my graduation classes, my professor introduced me the plant, told me its botanical name, physical features for identification and medicinal properties etc. during a field study. Still now that I am a man, I happen to see the plant growing here and there and identify it properly. It appears like a friend of mine, yes the friend of my childhood that helped me certainly in getting rid of the awkward and painful disease I was caught by, in my early age.

Nomenclature and Systematic position of Boerhavia diffusa

A correct identity of Punarnava or Boerhavia diffusa has not been confirmed in literature. In India a number of species are used under the same name. However it is of common agreement that the reddish variety is B. diffusa. This plant was named in the honor of Hermann Boerhaave, a famous 18^th century Dutch physician.

B.diffusa is a herbaceous plant which belongs to Nictaginaceae family of the group dicotyledons and phylum angiosperm. In Sanskrit language the name Punarnava means “that which rejuvenates the body”. It has different names in different Indian languages – biskhapra in Hindi, gadhapurna in Bengali, satodi in Gujrati, thzhuthama in Malayalam, Mukaratte in Tamil and itsit in Punjabi. In U.S.A it is known as hogweed or pigweed. In Brazil it is known as Erva Tostao.

Distribution of B. diffusa

Boerhavia diffusa is found in the tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world. It is distributed in China, India, Australia, Pakistan, Egypt, Sudan, Srilanka, U.S.A. and South Africa.

It is also found in a number of countries of the Middle East. This plant is indigenous to India and U.S.A. In India it is found in the warmer parts and up to an altitude of 2000m. It is found growing in waste lands, road sides, road dividers, near railway tracks, on ruins of old buildings, on rubles, and near old earthen ponds.

Generic description of Boerhavia diffusa

Boerhavia diffusa is a perennial creeping weed which grows up to one meter or more in length. A number of branches spread out from the node of main stem and cover most of the surrounding area. The stem is usually prostrate and woody. It is cylindrical, often purplish in colour, hairy and thick at nodes. Leaves are simple, ovate or oblong or round in shape and usually subcordate at the base. These are thick, arranged in unequal pairs, hairy, green and glabrous on the upper side. These are usually 5x3 sq cm in area. Roots are hard, fusiform and woody. They store food. The root system is large with a number of rootlets. The tap root is tuberous, cylindrical to narrowly fusiform, conical or tapering, light yellow to brownish in colour.

Flowers of Boerhavia diffusa are minute, hermaphrodite, sub capitates, pedicellate, present 4-10 together in small bracteolate umbel that forms panicles either axillary or terminal. These are white to pink or pink-red in colour. Calyx is replaced by a perienth, corolla is tubular in shape, and the tube is short and narrow at the base constricted above the ovary and funnel shaped at the top. Stamens are usually two or three in number and the stigma is peltate.The fruit is achene, ovate, oblong, pubescent, five ribbed and glandular and  anthocarpous .




                                     

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Chemical composition of extract of Boerhavia diffusa

The plant extract contains a large number of biochemicals like alkaloids, flavonoides, steroids, triterpenoides, lipids, lignins, carbohydrates, proteins, glycoproteins and Punarnavine and Boerhavinone (Agarwal and Dutt, 1936, Basu et al.,1947,1968; Surange and Pendse, 1972, Laxmi et al., 1990,92), hypoxanthine 0-L-arabinofuranoside, liirodendrin(Jain and Khanna,1998 and Aftab et al., 1996). Some workers have reported that the plant extract contains good quantities of potassium nitrate. Mishra and Tiwari (1971) in an important study reported that the plant extract contains ursolic acid. Studies reveal that the plant – shoot contains six essential amino acids where as root system contains 14 amino acids.

Properties of Boerhavia diffusa

Boerhavia diffusa is a plant of Ayurvedic, traditional, ethnoherbological and clinical- medicinal importance. Indigenous tribes of many countries have been reported to use different parts of the plant for food and medicine. Recent studies have found that the plant has anti-microbial including anti-viral properties. However the commercial use of the plant has not so far been encouraged except some companies selling its dried powder. The entire plant along with root is eaten as vegetable in curries and soups in some parts of the world. Sheep and goats like to graze the plant and it grows again and again each time it is grafted by the ruminants.

References

Aftab, K., Usmani, S.B., Ahmad, S.I., and Usmanghani, K. 1996. Naturally occurring calcium channel blockers-II. Hamdard Medicus 39:44–54.

Agarwal,R.R. and Dutt,S.S.1936. Chemical examination of Punarnava or Boerhavia diffusa Linn.II. Isolation of an alkaloid Punarnavine. Chemical Abstract 30: 44-54.

Basu, T.N.,Gupta,M.B.,Seth, P.K. and Bhargava, K.P. 1968.Investigation on Indian medicinal plants. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmocology 12:37.

Chopra, R.N., Ghosh, S., Dey, P., and Ghosh, B.N. 1923. Pharmacology and therapeutics of Boerhaavia diffusa (punarnava). Indian Medical Gazette 68:203–208.

Jain, G.K. and Khanna, N.M. 1989. Punarnavoside: A new antifibrinolytic agent from Boerhaavia diffusaLinn. Indian Journal of Chemistry 28(B):163–166.

Lami, N., Kadota, S., and Kikuchi, T. 1992. Constituents of the roots of Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. IV. Isolation and structure determination of boeravinones D, E and F. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 39(7):1863–1865.

Lami, N., Kadota, S., Tezuka, Y., and Kikuchi, T. 1990. Constituents of the roots of Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. II. Structure and stereochemistry of a new rotenoid boeravinone C2. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Journal.38(6):1558–1562.

Mishra, A.N. and Tiwari, H.P. 1971. Constituents of the roots of Boerhaavia diffusa. Phytochemistry 10:3318.

Mishra, J.P. 1980. Studies on the effect of indigenous drug Boerhaavia diffusa Rom. on kidney regeneration.Indian Journal of Pharmacy 12:59.

Surange, S.R. and Pendse, G.S. 1972. Pharmacognostic study of roots of Boerhaavia diffusa Willd.(punarnava). Journal of Research in Indian Medicine 7:1.

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